Men in the female dominated nursing profession

custody in the effeminate henpecked breast feeding businessThe existing literary productions in breast feeding reviewed, and is closelyly ground on the reason for the shortage of custody in c ar for, and their receives in a wo globeish dominated vocation. Most of the articles obtained in this lit review were from the infobases of Pub-Med, MEDLINE, Elsevier, Bio Med Central, SAGE pub, and Google Scholar.The reveal search words were compassionate, gender, manpower, agrees, tutorship for, stomps, non- traditionalisticistic problems, and favors. The data obtained for this literature review span from 1964 to 2010. minute is it known round the start knocked out(p)s of custody in carry off for in Malta. However, Mr. Joseph Camilleri (1964) wrote about History of breast feeding in Malta stating that the knights themselves performed the treat c atomic number 18 exclusively, to the same gender.The literature review presended is aimed to explore the advantages an d disadvantages that manful harbours experience while performing their get for roles in nursing.2.2 Difficulties manful go fors wager in a tradition whollyy pistillate occupation2.2.1 Introductionbreast feeding became predominately a fe potent profession in the late 19th century. Though Florence Nightingale made major contri saveions in the nursing profession, she was greatly involved in excluding work force from this profession by affirming that nursing was a discipline for fe manly. She did thrash hard in establishing nursing as a laudable profession for respectable women, ignoring the past infixed contributions made by men (Black and Germaine-Warner, 1995). Nightingale axiom the untested-begetting(prenominal)s task dependent to physical wrinkles like moving or lifting patients and never appreciated their condole with task. Besides, the Industrial Revolution largely influenced the track out of men from affectionateness professions, such(prenominal) as nursing . During this period, the widely acknowledged professions for men were business, technology and science. hands pursued medicine and women pursued nursing (Black and Germaine-Warner, 1995).Men ledger entry the nursing profession cross the conventional lines of gender. As a result, their masculinity passs an issue. either all over cartridge holder, masculinity has been defined by the roles men perform (Connell, 1995). The concept, nonion or idea of masculinity deters men from entering women-dominated professions, such as nursing, but men atomic number 18 silent on the en rise of women in the mens traditional professions, such as medicine and technology. Williams (1995), knock back 2.1 conducted in-depth wonders with 76 men and 23 fe phallic who work in predominantly fe male professions as well-disposed workers, elementary take teachers, nurses, and librarians. Through deft interpretation of her referenceees words, it was comprise that male nurses and those in former(a) female-conquered fields often emphasize their masculinity and try as much as possible to avoid fondizing with their women colleagues. This is argued by Williams as the completely way of legitimising their working in the womens conventional professions.An alpha learning, conducted by Heikes (1991), skirt 2.1 based on in-depth interviews with fifteen male nurses, showed that male nurses saw themselves in the abnormal position of belonging to 2 very non-homogeneous concourses. For instance, in the nursing profession, men ar taken as a minority group tagged as male nurse, whilst in a broader decree, men fit in the dominant social group where they are expected to be successful and excelling in their profession. male nurses are and then a unique type of minority group in the sensation that they are either a minority of the principal social conspiracy or minority of legal age. This disparity in grouping (minority-majority) stresses and discriminates men in nursing more(pre nominal) than other tokens. Furthermore, the rent indicates that more of the disadvantages male nurses experience (e.g., homo versed stigma, gender stereotypes) originate from outside of the nursing profession (Heikes, 1991, p.398). consort to theoretical research of the literature, carried out by Evans (2004), Table 2.1, a man associated with the nursing profession compromises his reputation plus social emplacement in patriarchal culture. Also, male nurses experience the stigma of working in a female-dominated profession, and they are seen by society as challenging the conventional roles of men (Lammi and Kauppinen-Toropainen, 1993). Evans argues (1997,p.228), citing Mangan (1994), that stigmatising labels imply that men who do nursing are different from other men, isolating them as deviants who are odd or homo shake upual.Furthermore, while analysing the data from semi-structured interviews with eight men nurses on their experiences in nursing, Evans (2002) noned that the male nurses are exposed to rejection and suspicion as nurturers and caregivers overdue to the percept that men and women sympathize with styles were not the same. Touch was one expression of compassionate that all participants place as central, to their recitation as nurses, and potentially dangerous because it can be misinterpret, which makes them vulnerable caregivers.Similarly, men in nursing are likely to be labelled gay. Pringle (1993) asserted that any feminised profession is believed to attract homosexual men, be it fashion, hairdressing, or even nursing. A memorize link appears to be haggard between sexual preferences and gender. Savage (1987) suggested that a male nurse is invariably tagged with a predominant image of macrocosm homosexual. He make headway supported this suggestion by asserting that men entering the nursing profession get to purportedly failed in other manhood professions and that the barely opening for them remains in the womens world. Harding, (20 07), Table, 2.1 in the social constructionist study conducted among 18 novel Zealand men sedulous in customary nursing found that majority of men in nursing are heterosexual. However, public perception is still that most male nurses are gay. This stereotype persists only in general nursing because it was constructed as feminine and abnormal for men, whereas psychiatricalal nursing was constructed as normal for men (Harding, 2007, p.641)Male nurses are believed to be further weakened, emasculated or ineffectual by resorting on womens traditional jobs in which they are anticipated to exhibit feminine qualities, such as cosmos gentle, caring and subordinate to women. Thus, labelling of men in the nursing profession as homosexuals makes them feel remorseful, outcast and discouraged. Pringle (2002) asserted that in most cultures, male gayness is seen as an infringement of masculinity and a denigration of mens mythical power. He further asserted that as homosexuality nibbles at mas culinity, it deteriorates the gender order.As earlier mentioned, up to this very moment nursing is extremely dominated by women and this translates to a number of personal and professional challenges to men entering the field. For example, several male nurses receive describe about physicians and head nurses placing slight trust in them. Besides, male nursing students encounter inconsistency from physicians, practicing nurses and the general public (Kelly et al., 1996). Female nurses frequently request male colleagues for assistance in turning and lifting patients, thereby emphasising physical strength and not professional expertise. It is all very frequent for male nurses or students to find themselves unwanted in delivery rooms, prenatal clinics and other related places that male physicians have emancipate access (Black and Germaine-Warner, 1995).Another knotty issue male nurses or students encounter is a mistrust emanating from their patients. Literature has it that a cons iderable number of patients have so violent or hostile in the presence of a male nurse and leave be uncomfortable submitting to intimate aesculapian procedures. This is a difficult position to encounter, and several male nurses ordinarily change by reversal frustrated when patients are not willing to confide in them because of worship or underserved disrespect (Fisher, 1999). Also, mounting study indicates that men in female-dominated careers, such as catering, nursing and fashion, encounter gender bias, elevated rates of job linked to stress as well as job discrimination (Amour, 2003).Table 2.1The dispersal of studies regarding the difficulties male nurses encounter in traditionally female professionAuthor/s and setting pattern and sampling system look design/ tool authoritative decisionsEvans, J.(2004),CanadaTheoretical research of literature review on men nurses in Canada, Britain U.S.A. between 1900 and 2003.Statistics, CINHAL, Pub Med, and sociological Abstract databas esFailure to recognize mens participation in nursing leaves male nurses without historical background, almost invisibleGender boundaries are negotiable during wars and discerning nursing shortage,Men in nursing execute to submit areas of specialization that are more mannish,Mens career path takes on traditional mannish role that seeks power and influenceEvans,J.(2002),Canada8 male nurses from community health nursing, medical-surgical, and general duty nursing,6 married, 1 with partner, and 1 gay age from late 20s to mid 50sTwo rounds of semi-structured interviewsThe stereotype of men as sexual aggressors is compounded by the stereotype that men nurses are gay,These stereotypes sexualise men nurses touch,Men nurses are subject of accusation of inappropriate behaviourHarding,T.(2007),Norway confabulation analysis of data from existing texts, and 2 films on men, nursing and masculinity, and interviews conducted in 2003-2004,18 participants, 11 self-identified as gay, 6 heteros exual, and 1 no knowledge on sexuality,The workplace embroild clinical nursing, education, administration, midwifery, mental health and build up forcesPurposive and snow ball samplingLoosely structured interviews with broad, open-ended questionsThree themes emerged which characterized the participants experiencesPersistence of the stereotype of the gay male nurse,Meeting homophobia in the work place,Strategies to protect ones homosexuality like working as psychiatric nurses.Heikes, J.(1991),U.S.A. 15 male RNs from nine different hospitals in Austin, TexasAge depend-alike 26-43 long timeWorking experience ranged from 1-14 old ageIn-dept interviews based on interview questions about the concrete work experiences, and non-work interactionsFour role stereotypes emerged from the data Ladder-climber, Troublemaker, and He-man, traditionally virile traits, and homosexual, which is imposed on male nurses from the outsideMale tokens are expected to excel in the occupational or public flying fieldRespondents reported social isolation in order to maintain higher(prenominal) status and to reduce the possibility of them being labelled un masculine or homosexual.Williams,C. (1995),U.S.A.76 men and 23 women in four occupations nursing, librarian, elementary school teacher, and social workerFrom 1985-1991Snowball samplingAge range from 20-66In-dept interview, with the interview questionnaire consisted of several open ended four broad questions on penury to enterthe profession, experience in training, career progression, and general about mens status. (p.229) governance to face interviewCultural and social stereotypes about masculinity squash men to raise in a glass escalator tothe highest remunerative and most prestigious nursing specialities Men encouraged to advance by an invisible pressureMen develop strategies to present themselves as masculine, and professional to female colleagues2.3 Advantages and disadvantages perceived in males nursing career2.2.1 Introduc tionMale nurses belong to a minority group. Approximately 3.1 percent of nurses in Canada and the fall in States are male, about 8.77 percent in the united Kingdom, (Rott, et.al (2008), and in Malta 28 percent (Council for nurses and midwifes, 2010). According to Evans (1997), Table 2.2, women working in mens traditional professions normally encounter hostile working environs. However, men working in female-dominated professions whitethorn never encounter such disadvantages. That said, the focal rationale for drawing men to nursing is to enhance the status and the prestige of the profession as a whole. It remains debatable whether this will really work or not. some(prenominal) researchers and scholars have argued that the rationale puts a noteworthy pressure on men to salvage the nursing profession, whereas others believe that al first gearing men in the profession further raises the position of masculine gender in the society (Evans, 1997).Male as well encompass an advantage in the nursing profession due to traditional stereotype that men are always the breadwinners of the families. In most societies, women ordinarily take primary tasks for childcare and housework, giving men a distinct benefit. For instance, there is a devastating perception in the United States and most Anglo-Saxon world that women are less devoted to their work than men. This is largely due to the unfair division of labour inside the household. As such, even in female professions, men remain with this unequal advantage over women (Williams, 1995).In addition to, Abrahamsen (2004), Table 2.2, argues when men obtain chairman positions more often than women, this can be result of favourism of men (p.35). A quantitative, non-experimental descriptive study ,conducted over twenty years, in order to refer constructions of masculinity, and career development, showed that twenty years after graduation, ,70% of male nurses were in the leading position, and away from bodily wards. They moved to a sector which offered better income , which suggests that net income is important when male nurses move within different parts of the health care sector ( Abrahamsen, 2004).Additionally, the major functions in nursing accentuate technical knowledge, lead and devotion to work, all these are perceived as being masculine traits. Consideration to detail and showing of emotions that are usually characteristics of females are not credited as good skills of leadership. What is more, male nurses are more social with doctors than their female counterparts. Since men feel they lack much in normal with their female counterparts, they prefer talking about vehicles and sports with other men, especially male doctors. This in itself provides advantages for career projections, as doctors begin to appreciate male nurses as being competent just like their women colleagues (Bush, 1976).The transversal study of Dassen, T., Nijhuis,J.N. Philipsen, H. (1990), Table 2.2 which was based on a internal check over among intensive-care (IC) nurses in The Netherlands, showed that male IC-unit nurses consider IC-nursing to be a medical rather than a nursing activity in order to upgrade their own profession into a kind of medical profession. Due to an over-representation of men in technical wards, distribution of labour among male and female nurses is taking place according to traditional sex -specific patterns where male nurses stand a better chance of being promoted to higher positions. In addition, the study revealed that 50% of male nurses wish to become head of a nursing ward which proves that male nurses are more oriented towards profesionalization than female nurses.On the other hand, Kanters (1977) notion of tokenism supposed that the mathematical underrepresentation of individuals in an occupation, particularly those classified by gender, ethnicity or race, will lead to discriminatory treatment. Therefore, for all minority groups, a given profession will always ex perience negative job impacts. According to Kanter, members of minority group are likely to achieve less in the working environment than members of the majority group. However, Williams (1995) contravened that when men are seen as minority group in the nursing profession, they normally use their dominant gender privilege to rapidly rise to the topmost hierarchy (Saville-Smith and James, 1994).Conversely, nursing is seen by several commonwealth as a feminine profession and is therefore devalued in male-conquered patriarchal society. This profession is always stereotyped as having the characteristics of caring, nurturing, submission and dependence. These traits real to nursing contrast with the alleged male characteristics of dominance, aggression and strength and frankincense male nurses usually isolate themselves from their female nurses as a way of expressing the notion of masculinity (Heikes, 1991). Moreover, when an individual forms an identity which is incompatible with the e xpectations of the society, people usually become uncomfortable and uncertain on how to behave. In most societies all over the world, nurses are perceived as women, and thus it is quite difficult for individuals to know how to interrelate with male nurses. They find it too unknown wherefore a man would decide on a career dominated by a recessive sex. This is a major disadvantage to men in nursing and most of them are indeed deterred from the profession by assuming that other individuals will see them as unmanly (Bagilhole and Cross, 2002).Table 2.2The distribution of studies regarding the advantages and disadvantages perceived in males nursing careerAuthor/s and settingSample and sampling methodResearch design/ InstrumentSignificant findingsAbrahamsen, D.(2004)Norway1450 male and female nurses who completed training in 1977 Norse survey of nurses undertaken at the end of 1998After a year from graduating, 10% of male and female, both were in leadership position,After twenty years l ater, 70% of men were in leading position away from somatic wards and bed-ridden patients, Better income was moved male nurses within different parts of the health care system.Dassen,T.W.N.et.al.,(1990)The Netherlands1960 male and female nurses, data borrowed from the Intensive Care Association, 960 returned the forms by post,R.R.49%Survey, questionnaire sent by postThere is an over-presentation of men in technical wards,10% of the male nurses reported having chosen to work in an IC-unit,50% of the male nurses wish to become head of a nursing ward compared to only 15% of female nurses.Evans,J.(1997)CanadaTheoretical literature reviewNot verbaliseEven in the female dominated profession , patriarchal society enables men to obtain dominant position, Marital status for men has monumental career advantage, Men nurses have more university degrees compared to women nurses,2.4 Why men withdraw nursing as a career2.4.1 IntroductionMost men drive nursing for the similar reasons women choo se nursing. They are goaded by the desire to care for patients (Boughn, 2001). Besides, men have numerous practical reasons that include career opportunity, job security, job flexibility and stable income. Conventionally, men tend to prefer active and challenging fields of nursing, such as cardiac care units, trauma units, emergency departments, cardiac care units, intensive care units, anaesthesiology or flight nursing, among others. Men are often attracted to the technical aspects of subtle care specialties and always motivated by the challenges created by the medical instruments use in those units.However, a pilot study investigating the motivations and experiences of 42 males in the nursing profession conducted by Whittock M. Leonard L. (2003), Table 2.3 showed that a major agentive role that attracted men in nursing was influence of parents, specially mothers, engaged in nursing or other healthcare professions. On the other hand, this finding was not true for all interview ees.A similar, qualitative, study exploring what motivates Israeli men to choose nursing as their profession was conducted by Romem, P. Anson, O. ( 2005), Table 2.3. Self- administered questionnaires which include 52-items were drawn up, in order to determine the social characteristics of male nurses, and their motives in choosing the profession. These questionnaires were distributed to all registered nurses, 137 female and 123 male, in three general and three psychiatric hospitals. The results of the study show that an early exposure to the profession, as well as the ethnic background are prominent factors that motivate men to choose nursing. Job security, career opportunities and salary, also play an important role (Romem, Anson,2005). On the other hand, men in nursing are not taking leading positions in the health care system due to their social origins.Nevertheless, there has been worry that several men may just look at the nursing profession as a facilitator to other masculine professions such as medicine and that they may not take nursing as their long lasting career. This is because of secondary get and perceived low status of nursing as it is always associated with a lesser sex in the society (Williams, 1989). This anxiety was borne out in 2002 by a study conducted in the University of Pennsylvania. The study was based on the Analysis of the 1992-2000 the National Survey of Registered Nurses, the nations most extensive and comprehensive statistics on registered nurses with current licenses to practice in US. In this study it was found that about 7.5% of sassy-fangled male nurses leave over(p) this female-dominated profession within four years after graduating from nursing school. This was a higher percent compared to the 4.1% of female nurses who deserted the nursing profession in the same period (Solchalski, 2002).While Sochalski (2002), Table 2.3, in her research underscored the learn to determine the reasons for the exodus of nurses, a study of Rajapaksa Rothstein (2009), Table 2.3, showed that men and women nurses who left wing(p) nursing had some similar and some different reasons for their actions. The sample consisted of 1,589 registered nurses who were employed in other occupations at the time of the National Sample Survey of Registered Nurses 2000. Gender was the primary independent variable, although the vast majority of respondents in this study were female ( 93,5%). At the time of the survey , 63.2% of the respondents were working full time at their tender jobs, and 36.8% were working part time. The survey consisted of a self-administered forced-choice questionnaire that include gender, participants age, working age, income, marital status, educational level and race. The results revealed that both men and women left nursing for better working hours and more rewarding positions elsewhere, and whilemen nurses do not leave nursing for other occupations because of dissatisfaction with their roles as nurses, b ut rather because of their perceptions of the low financial rewards associated with nursing (Rajapaksa, et al 2009, p.206).A number of issues face majority of men who do decide to remain in nursing. These men frequently feel an emotional reaction, a role strain that might be felt by any individual in a profession which has a social formation conquered by members of the opposite sex. For those men raised(a) in the culture of American andocentricism, not used to anti-male gender inequity, this may create discontent and anxiety. Increasingly, though, men today fill majority of leadership tasks in the nursing profession.2.3 TableThe distribution of the studies exploring why men choose nursing as a careerAuthor/s and settingSample and sampling methodResearch design/InstrumentSignificant findingsRajapaksa,S.Rothstein,W.(2009)U.S.ASecondary Analysis of the National Sample Survey of Registered Nurses 2000,Sample 1.589 RNS who were employed in other occupations90% white,Age of the responden ts 48.49 Average number of years worked as an RN was 8.73 yearsThe data used were the General normal Use Files, Self-administered forced choice questionnaireThree main reasons for leaving nursing46% respondents stated that the working hours where more convenient in the new job, 47,2% found current job more rewarding,35% stated that they left for better salariesRomem,P.Anson,O.(2005)Israel260 participants, 123 male and 137 registered nurses in 3 general and 3 psychiatric hospitals during 1997-1998.RR 74% convey age was 37Majority of the respondents were married 52-item questionnaire based on in-dept interviews with 5 male and 5 female RNNursing appeals to groups out-of the stream (immigrants and ethnic minorities) Israeli men in nursing do not occupy leading positions in health careMen are absent from the nursingAdministration.78% of the male in this study belong to immigrants or ethnic minority.Sochalski,J.(2002)U.S.A.Data Analysis of 1992-2000 National Sample Survey of Registered NursesThe number of respondents in 2000 questionnaire was 35,579.R.R.71.7%Data from National Survey of Registered NursesQuestionnaire New nurses at the beginning of their career show job satisfaction,75% of women among new nurses were satisfied with their job, and only 67% men,7.5% of new male nurses left their job within four years, Male nurses are leaving profession double the rate of women136,000 nurses are working in other professions.Whittock,M.Leonard,L.(2003)U.K.1.Literature review on males in nursing from historical and present day perspective,2. Pilot study on what prevents from considering a nursing career30 pre registration male nurses,30 post registration male nurses,10 ex-nurses males.The sample to look 42 male nurse of different ethnicitiesMean age 33,64 yearsIn dept semi-structured interview limited to 1 hour duration typeface to face interview Interviewees have expressed the view that males can be caring as females,They have experienced some form of caring situation , usually in family,Schools services are doing nothing or gnomish to portray nursing as a possible career for young men,Only 14% of male are enrolling into nursing2.5 Views of male nurses in the nursing profession2.5.1 IntroductionSeveral male nurses have over time expressed their views concerning the nursing profession and in most instances they have reported undergoing a role strain. This has greatly implicated their career ambition and put a question as to whether caring is destined for them (Simpson, 2005). A qualitative study conducted by Simpson (2005), Table 2.4,in order to explore the experience of men in non-traditional occupations ,underscored from 40 in- depth interviews, that majority of men feel discomfort, embarrassment and shame. some have reported masculinity challenges, including low pay and loss of status. Moreover, in the nursing profession, a good nurse is usually acknowledged by having attributes such as caring, subservience, compassion and kindness (Hicks, 1 999). whole these attributes are similar to those naturally depicted in females and thus the profession requires an individual with feminine traits. Loughrey,M.(2007), Table 2.4 performed a quantitative, non-experimental descriptive design in order to find out the gender role perception of male nurses, for the first time, in Ireland. Following the analysis of this research, out of 104 male nurses, 78 respondents identified themselves as affectionate, sympathetic and understanding, which corresponds more to female gender roles, and that credence of the characteristics of the female gender role may not be unusual to male nurses.Hart, K. (2005), Table 2.4, reports on Men in Nursing Survey, that the naive realism that nursing is traditionally female profession is the main reason why more men arent attracted to the profession, according to 38% of respondents. Other key reasons cited were the stereotype that all men in nursing are gay (29 %), ridiculous pay (15 %), and lack of role mo dels (15%). One respondent said that many people think a man who chooses to spend his career as a staff nurse is a failure or lacks direction. Many others said that male nurses are perceived as men who flunked out of medical school. (Hart, p.48). With these hard-hitting facts, men in nursing view themselves as unsuited for caring task (Wingfield, 2009).Even more, male nurses have reported not once of being victims of homophobic abuse, some of them state that they have been called dreadful names, such as you faggot this while providing nursing care to patients. There are even views of male nurses who feel disadvantaged in life because they decided on a female-dominated profession, which confers a lesser status upon them (McDougall, 1997).The effect of nurse gender on nurse and patient perceptions of nurse caring were explored by Ekstrom, (1999),Table 2.4, using two matched, Likert-like, and 61 items questionnaires. The results collected from the two groups of 145 nurse-patient gender combination, indicated that caring is not particularly female quality, and that nurse caring can be performed by both genders male and female, from the nurse or the patient perspective. However, men find it difficult to demonstrate caring behaviours suggesting avoidance of self-identification with a feminine stereotype.According to these views, it is as if humans are perpetually susceptible, incapable of handling their affairs. Undoubtedly, the preoccupation with the harms and hurts of being a male nurse appears at odds with the evidence of mens masculinity and brisk expert advancement (Furedi, 2003).2.4 TableThe distribution of the studies regarding the views of the male nurses in the nursing professionAuthor/s and settingSample and sampling methodResearch design/InstrumentSignificant findingsEkstrom,D.N.(1990)U.S.A.Sample of two 145 nurse-patients combinations, from 5 adult acute care medical centers Random sampling of the patients, Mean age of female nurses 35.5 Mean age of mal e nurse 36.3,Patients had a mean age of 46.4 with a range of 19-82 years. Two 61 items-matched Likert like questionnaires1. The nurse caring questionnaire,2.The patient caring questionnaire